A vessel made of clay or stone powder, either singly or in mixture, and fired by fire. The surface is often covered with a thin coat of beryllium to prevent water or other liquids from penetrating, or for decorative purposes. The essence of the glaze is called the “base,” and the thin skin is called the glaze (glaze, glaze, or soup). In Japan, all ceramics made in the early period were unglazed, and were called jar, biraga, tegutsu, etc., and were collectively called suemono. The name “suemono” is thought to mean “to put various things in a jar and set it on the table. Later, with the introduction of Chinese characters, the word “pottery” was used. The word “pottery” was originally written in Chinese as “陶” meaning “kiln,” and “陶器” meaning “kiln-fired ware,” and was used as a general term for pottery in general. In China, pottery is still used today as a general term for pottery. Even in Japan, the word “pottery” was once used as a generic term for ceramics, and even today there are many cases where it is used in this sense, such as in the case of a pottery dealer or a certain pottery company. Recently, however, the word “pottery” has come to be used in a narrower sense to refer only to certain types of pottery. For example, pottery is classified into porcelain, ceramics, stoneware, and earthenware. Because of these classifications, the word “pottery” has two meanings, one narrow and the other broad, and it has become confusing as to which meaning is meant by simply saying “ceramics. To clarify this point, the term “ceramics” is most commonly used today as a generic term for pottery. Ceramics can be white or colored, and can have a rough base that allows water to permeate through or a firm base that does not allow water to permeate through.
They are both impervious to almost all chemicals except hydrofluoric acid, and they are poor conductors of electricity. The chemical composition of the base material consists mainly of silicic acid and other impurities such as potash, soda, lime, bitter earth, iron oxide, etc., or even phosphoric acid, as in bone-ash soft porcelain. Although the chemical composition of glazes varies with the type of ware, they are all silicic acid compounds, and some glazes are mixed with boric acid compounds. However, the five most common bases are potash, soda, lime, chalcopyrite, and lead oxide, some containing two or three of these, and some containing all of them. Some contain two or three of them, while others contain all of them. Some also contain heavy clay, bitter clay, and zinc oxide for special purposes. For the classification of ceramics, see the section on “Classification of Pottery.
The origin of ceramics, or in other words, the very rudimentary production of ceramics, is known from shell middens and other artifacts excavated from the earth since prehistoric times. However, it is likely that when humans first learned that wet clay could be dried and formed into pottery, they learned to use fire and heat, and immediately began to use clay to make pottery. The greatest progress in the ancient art of pottery making was made in Egypt, and the use of the potter’s wheel seems to have started there. The discovery of a drawing of a potter using this wheel on the wall of the tomb of Beni Hassan in the Thebes period shows how old the use of the wheel was.
The use of glaze is also said to be oldest in Egypt, and it was already in use as early as B.C. The Chinese also used glaze to make pottery in prehistoric times. Legend has it that the Chinese also made progress in the art of pottery making in prehistoric times, with Shennong making tile ware and the Yellow Emperor having the official position of Touzheng, who made Kungo pottery. As we will see later, pottery has existed in Japan since prehistoric times. The art of pottery making has been known to all peoples since time immemorial, and although there were ups and downs in its production methods, it gradually developed through the invention of individual peoples and the transmission of knowledge among them. The Egyptian pottery, the most advanced in antiquity, was developed by the Assyrians and then by the Persians, who transmitted their methods to Europe through the Moorish invasions and occupation of Spain and southern France in the Middle Ages, and later to Spain, where the Christian conquest of that country put an end to the pottery industry, but transmitted its lineage. The Italians invented the opaque white tin glaze in the fifteenth century. In the 18th century, the English invented hard ceramics, which further revolutionized the pottery industry. Porcelain, the most advanced type of ceramic ware, was invented by the Chinese, and although its date of origin seems to be the end of the Han dynasty, it was not until the Tang dynasty that it developed and produced good wares, beginning in the Song and Ming dynasties. The Xuande (1426-35) and Chenghua (1465-87) periods of the Ming Dynasty were particularly prominent, and Longqing and Wanli (1567-1619) were also prosperous periods. In the West, porcelain was first produced in Saxony at the beginning of the 18th century in imitation of Chinese products, and from there it spread to other countries. The production of porcelain in Japan was the result of the Joseon War (1592-8). In the West, Germany, England, and Czechoslovakia were the leading producers of porcelain from an industrial standpoint, and France was first in the production of fine porcelain, while England surpassed them in the production of hard ceramics and bone-ash soft porcelain. The United States has significantly increased its production in modern times. In the Orient, Japan is the world’s leading exporter, surpassed only by Germany and the United Kingdom. China is still a major producer of ceramics and porcelain, although it is in a slump compared to the past. The following is an overview of the history of Japanese ceramics and porcelain from many sources.
The following is an overview of the history of pottery in Japan, based on many sources. All of them were unglazed earthenware. When Susanowo-no-mikoto went to Kawakami in Izumo Province, the local people brewed sake in jars and pots. The dish was made of clay and served to Amaterasu. The sea god Toyotama-hime once used a jade bowl to draw water from a well. At the time, ceramic arms were usually used, so bowls made of jade were called “tama-bowls”. In the third year before the accession to the throne of Emperor Jinmu, the emperor attempted to defeat bandits in Yamato. He had Shiinetsuhiko make a vessel out of haniwa (clay) from Mount Amakayama to worship the gods, and the next year he defeated the rebels. The place where he took the clay is called Hani’an. Hani’an” means “to soften hani. The vessel offered to the god was called “Izu dance steps. It was called “Ibabaisama” in later times. There was an earlier craftsman in Oshima-gun, Izuminokuni. He often made pottery, so the place was called Tono, which was later called Toukisou. In the third year of Emperor Taruhito’s reign, a craftsman from Kagamitani in Omi Province, who was a descendant of a naturalized Silla, often made Silla-style ceramics. In the 32nd year of the same emperor’s reign, when Empress Hiyohazu Ehime-no-mikoto died, he used Nomi Shukune’s advice to create a mausoleum for her burial, and made ceramic people and horses to erect it. The tombs were made of ceramic people and horses, and were called “tachimono” or “haniwa” (clay figurines). At this time, the Dojibu government was established for the first time, and the area where pottery was to be made was designated, with Nomi-no-Sukune as the chief and the family name Doji given to him. Later, the descendants of Doji supervised the potters and served the imperial court. During the reign of Emperor Keiko, there was a god in Saka, Hizen Province, who was known to kill passersby in the mountains, and the governor of that province, Oarata, was troubled by this.
He was troubled by this, and was told that if he took soil from Shimoda Village, made statues of a man and a horse, and worshipped them, the deity’s will would surely be appeased.
Oarada obeyed her words and worshipped the deity. This was the beginning of the practice in Japan of using ceramic horses and men as deities. In the 4th year of the reign of Emperor Yunkyo, a vessel was used to correct the nobility of his subjects. In the 7th year of the reign of Emperor Yusei, the emperor began to actively promote the pottery industry, and using the council of the Western Han dynasty, he invited a Baekje potter named Kogi to live in Momohara, Kawachi Province. Later, Baekje’s pottery methods spread to Japan, and the pottery industry in other countries gradually began to develop. In the 17th year of the same year, the emperor issued an imperial decree to Dojigo and others to make and offer purified vessels for the morning and evening meals. The first time a board was seen was during the reign of Emperor Hyeonsung. Later, in 645, he appointed a court priest to manage the Doji craftsmen. According to legend, the origin of Karatsu ware is said to be the pottery production in Hizen Province in those days, and in 701 (Taiho 1), the doors for pottery workers were established, and in 703 (Taimura 3), a great Tsuin (driving ceremony) was held for the first time due to a plague in the country.
For archaeological research, see Jomon Pottery, Yayoi Pottery, Sue ware and Doji ware.
Nara Period] When Emperor Shoutoku built Gyokuden (Hall of the Goden) in the To-in Temple, he painted a pattern of “Mokeki” on the lapis lazuli tile roofing. The glazed lapis lazuli tiles were probably the beginning of a trend toward the application of colored glazes to ceramics.
In 794 (Enryaku 13), when the capital was moved to a new location, heki kawara (blue-glazed roof tiles) were made and used to roof Daigoku-den (Daigoku Hall). In 808 (Daidou 3), the potteries were transferred to the Daizen system, and thereafter ceramics were produced by the Daizen system. 815 (Kounin 6): Zuishi-ware was produced by Nimbu Otomaro of the Nimbu family in Yamada County, Owari. In 815 (Konin 6), Jinzanke Nimbu Otomaro and others began to learn the art of making porcelain, and served in the same way as the Zosei. During the Nara and Heian periods, celadon was called “secret color” and was highly prized. In 905 (Engi 5), the Emperor Murakami used sake bottles of a secret color for his meals, and in 905, he established a system whereby the ten provinces that were to pay tribute in the form of pottery were Yamato, Kawachi, Settsu, Izumi, Omi, Mino, Harima, Bizen, and Sanuki, and two provinces, Owari and Nagato, were to provide porcelain ware for their annual offerings.
After the Jouhei Tenkei Rebellion, the pottery industry gradually declined, and since only a few artisans followed the law, the countries that should have been dedicated to ceramics began to use other materials instead.
Since the Jokyu Rebellion, the production of ceramics by artisans in many countries has been extremely rare. During the reign of Emperor Go-Horikawa, a man named Kato Shirozaemon Keisho entered the Song dynasty (960-1279) and learned the pottery method, opened a kiln in Seto Village, Kasugai County, Owari Province (Seto City, Aichi Prefecture), and produced tea pots using the Song method. He was called Fujishiro, and his work is called Koseto. From this time on, he began to produce decorative works of art. Since then, pottery production developed, and Shigaraki ware flourished during the reign of Emperor Go-Uda, and Iga ware during the reign of Emperor Godaigo. However, these ceramics were not created until the Muromachi period (1333-1573).
In the Muromachi period (1333-1573), most of the pottery was imported from China, Korea, and the southern islands, but as the tea ceremony and incense ceremony became popular, potters began to appear and produce pottery in various regions. Seto ware produced a wide variety of vessels, including the Tenmoku glaze, which was perfected in Seto. Other types of pottery include Bizen ware (Ibe ware, which is said to have originated long ago, but has produced vases and tea utensils since the end of the Edo period and is called Ko-Bizen) and Karatsu ware (Nenuki ware was produced between 1334 and 1487, from the period of Kenmu to Bunmei, and Okugoryo ware was produced between 1469 and 1592, from Bunmei to Tensho). The “Oku Koryo” was made from 1469 to 1592.
The Momoyama Period: Toyotomi Hideyoshi favored the tea ceremony and cherished ancient vessels, and tea masters such as Sen no Rikyu, Hosokawa Yusai, and Furuta Oribe had ceramics made according to their preferences.
In Kyoto, Tanaka Chojiro produced Raku ware, followed by Masayi, Man’emon, Genjuro, and Sohaku, and in Bizen, Mikazuki Rokubei and others produced their own original tea ceremony utensils. The lords who served in the Bunroku-Keicho War brought back those who had returned and were capable of making ceramics, and had them open pottery kilns in their respective territories. The pottery industry arose in various regions. In particular, the Lee family (Kanegae Sanbei), who followed the Marquis of Nabeshima in Saga, discovered porcelain materials in Arita Izumiyama around 1615-44 and produced the first porcelain in Japan. Oribe ware, created by Oribe Furuta, also appeared in this period.
In the Shoho period (1644-8), the first porcelain painting technique was developed by Sakaida Kakiemon in Hizen, and exported to China, marking the pioneering entry of Japanese ceramics into the overseas market. He exported his work to China during the Shoho period (1644-8), and was a pioneer in the overseas expansion of Japanese ceramics. Hon’ami Koetsu was another example of a sukiyoshi (a person with a few special skills). Kobori Toemori Masakazu, the magistrate of Fushimi, was also an expert on the tea ceremony, and he gave his designs to the kilns of Iga, Shigaraki, Shidoro, Zesho, Ueno, Takatori, Asahi, Kosobe, Akahada, and others to improve and advance their techniques. Clans also protected pottery kilns, and the most prominent of these include Shimazu’s Tateno kiln, Kuroda’s Takatori kiln, Nabeshima’s Okawachi kiln, Owari Tokugawa’s Omukai kiln, Todo’s Marubashira kiln, Matsuura’s Mikawauchi kiln, Kishu Tokugawa’s Kairakuen kiln, and Ii’s Koto kiln. In addition, Ibe, Karatsu, Tanba, Awata, Hagi, and Seto all produced unusual pieces, and most of the other kilns, including Kaga-Kutani, Shimizu, Arita, Oto, Awaji, Tobe, Aizu, Sanda, Soma, Imado, Banko, Mino, Kasama, Mashiko, Akashi, Nushina, Rakuyama, and Ecchu Seto, were produced during this period. Many of them were located in Kyoto and other places in Japan, and many of them became famous as master craftsmen.
After the Meiji Restoration] As the times changed, most of the ceramics used for tea ceremony utensils began to decline, but those used for tableware, such as Arita, Seto, and Kutani, not only met the demand in Japan but also exported their products overseas, where they continued to thrive. After the Meiji Restoration, Arita took the lead in importing Western kiln methods, and for a time, the products of the Koransha and Seiji companies were praised by foreigners. Mino, Tobe, and Aizu ware made rapid progress after the Meiji Restoration, and their production value increased remarkably. The pottery industry in Tobe and Aizu was not well known, but after the Meiji Restoration, it suddenly developed and many of the products were exported to foreign countries. In Tokyo, too, after the Meiji Restoration, some master porcelain makers began to emerge and produce works of art.
In Kyoto, there were many potters in the Gojozaka and Awata areas who produced works of art from the early period, and even today, in addition to exports, Kyoto-specific works of art are produced by those who have inherited the tradition and continue to produce exquisite pieces, preserving the old tradition and maintaining its dignity.
The recent development of the industry has been stimulated by foreign demand, which has given it the potential to be converted into a factory.
Production Process of Yakimono (Pottery)
The production process of pottery is not constant, depending on the variety and the type of pottery. The process varies from kiln to kiln, but can be roughly divided into clay preparation, molding, glaze preparation and application, firing, and painting. The following is a brief overview.
Preparation of clay】Earth and stone are the main raw materials for clay. The clay includes pure porcelain clay and various types of clay, and the stones include feldspar, silica, pegmatite, quartz coarse-grained rock, granite, quartzite mottled rock, and others. In addition, silica sand, bone, limestone, limestone, chalk, etc. are also used. The porcelain clay or clay is used to give plasticity to the clay and make it formable. It is the backbone of clay and is present in all types of ceramics. Some clayey clay, quartz, and feldspar components are found in decomposed quartzite, such as amakusa stone, which can be used to make high-quality ceramics.
However, most clay is prepared by mixing several raw materials to adjust its plasticity, fusibility, refractoriness, and color. In order to prepare clay, the lumps in the raw materials must first be crushed. Various types of crushers are available. For the production of coarse articles, the raw clay material is either left as mined without water and kneaded, or simply sifted to remove coarse grains, and then water is added and kneaded to make clay bowls, which are then used for the production of fine articles. In either case, however, it is best to store the mined clay without processing it immediately. In most cases, the clay is prepared in the form of plaster, but in some cases, the raw materials are prepared in dry form and then watered, while in others, they are prepared in dry form and then mixed with water and finely ground. In rare cases, the dry method is used for the preparation of clay bowls, but in most cases, the excess water must be removed from the prepared clay because it becomes a plasma-like material. The traditional method of removing excess water in Japan involves placing the plaster in a large unglazed earthenware jar or a rectangular funnel-shaped funnel, about 90 cm wide at the top and 1.8 m long, with the lower part narrowed to a depth of 60 to 90 cm, to allow the water to leak out. This pool is surrounded by bamboo or wooden poles on all four sides, with rush mats or woven mats on the inside, sand on the bottom, and ceramic plates placed on top of the mats or woven mats. When the mud becomes thick, it is placed in a suibachi, an unglazed pot, or on an unglazed flat tile, and exposed to the sun to harden it to the proper consistency. However, this method not only causes dust to be mixed into the clay during the process, but also makes it difficult to remove the water easily when it rains. For this reason, the use of press dewatering machines has been gradually increasing in recent years, following Western methods. Once the clay has been dewatered to an appropriate consistency, it is kneaded. In the past, kneading was generally done by hand or with a pestle, but nowadays, kneading machines are used. There are various types of kneading machines, and the most commonly used are cylindrical kneading machines and rolling wheel kneading machines. For colored soil, iron kneaders can be used, but those used for white soil must have iron parts that do not come into direct contact with the soil. Cylindrical kneading machines are usually used for kneading colored clay, while rolling wheel kneading machines are used for kneading fine white clay.
Molding] Once the clay is finished, the vessel is formed using the finished clay. There are three types of molding methods: hand, model, and wheel-thrown. Handmade is done by hand without the use of any machinery. The most commonly used models are plaster molds, although wooden, clay, and unglazed models can also be used. There are different types of molds according to the method of use, such as cast-in molds, stroked-out molds, and pressed molds. There are three types of potter’s wheels: hand wheel, kick wheel, and machine wheel.
Glaze Composition and Glaze Application】Feldspar or natural feldsparite alone is used as a glaze component, lime is added to feldspar, lime and quartz are added to feldspar, and ash glaze, which is a mixture of earth and ash, is also used. Limestone marble, albite, and ash are usually used for the lime content. For glazes that do not have a high degree of fusion, lead compounds such as Tang clay, mitta, and leadite, or alkali compounds such as borax, alkali carbonate, and nitre are added to the aforementioned materials. In low-temperature glazes, these are mainly mixed with silica stones. In this case, water-insoluble materials such as lead compounds can be mixed as they are, but water-soluble materials such as alkali salts are melted together with some of the other materials to form a kind of glass called “frit” (white jade), which is insoluble in water, Then, it is necessary to mix it with fine powder again. For the preparation of colored glazes, some use earth and stones that naturally contain iron, etc., but most of them are mixed with a coloring agent, usually a compound of cobalt, manganese, copper, iron, nickel, chromium, antimony, titanium, uranium, etc. To prepare glazes, the following compounds are used in advance. To prepare glazes, each raw material is crushed in advance, then water-sieved and mixed in the form of plasma, or crushed raw materials are weighed and mixed, then ground and polished using a millstone or a trommel. Glazes are not without coarse particles in their composition, but in general, the particles should be as fine as possible. The most common way to apply glaze is to make mud plaster and dip the vessel in it for adhesion, and most vessels are glazed in this way. For special purposes, such as color glaze painting, mottling, etc., spraying, pouring, and painting are used. In the case of spraying, glaze is sprayed onto the surface of the vessel using a misting device; in the case of pouring, glaze is poured over the vessel; and in the case of lacquering, glaze is applied with a brush or a brush. In addition, there is also volatile glazing, in which a volatile alkali compound is thrown into the kiln when the firing is about to be completed, and the volatilization of the compound fuses with the clay and produces a kind of glaze skin on the surface.
This method is mainly applied to earthenware pipes or stoneware, and salt is usually used as a volatilizer.
Firing] Ceramics must be fired. There are several types of firing: unglazed, honyaki, fired, glazed, and fired. The main purposes of unglazing are to increase the porosity of the bowl to facilitate glazing and to increase its hardness to reduce the risk of breakage during glazing, kiln filling, and other operations. In particular, some types of clay cannot be glazed on the raw base, so they are fired unglazed. The heat of the fire is generally between 8-900 degrees Celsius, but in rare cases, such as Arita porcelain, more than 100 degrees Celsius is required. Honji-yaki is the highest heat a vessel can be subjected to and is carried out after glazing, while honji-yaki, which is carried out before glazing, is called shimeyaki. After shimeyaki, the glaze is applied and then fired at a lower heat than shimeyaki in order to melt the glaze. This is called glaze firing. Jimeyaki does not involve any pre-firing. In other words, there are three types of vessels that are fired: the first type is fired over low fire, followed by glazing, and then fired over high fire; the second type is fired over high fire, followed by glazing, and then fired over low fire; and the third type is simply fired without unglazing. The third type is simply fired without unglazing. Most European and Japanese porcelains and ceramics such as Awata-yaki, Satsuma-yaki, and Nushina-yaki are classified as Type 1, hard ware, bone ash soft ware, and majolica ware as Type 2, and Chinese porcelain, Aizu ware, and many types of crude pottery and stoneware as Type 3. The degree of heat of firing and firing is not uniform, but varies greatly depending on the quality of the ceramic ware. The maximum temperature for hon-yaki is around 1450 degrees Celsius (1450 degrees Fahrenheit), the minimum for jime-yaki is around 1300 degrees Celsius (1300 degrees Fahrenheit), and the minimum for both is around 1150 degrees Celsius (1150 degrees Fahrenheit). The minimum temperature for both is around 1,150 degrees Celsius, and the minimum for both is around 1,150 degrees Celsius. The firing temperature is not constant depending on the nature of the pigment. It is usually around 100 degrees Celsius, with the lowest being around 800 degrees Celsius, but it can be as low as 700 degrees Celsius or lower. Kilns are used for all types of firing. There are many types of kilns, and the main kilns conventionally used in Japan are so-called climbing kilns, which are semi-continuous firing kilns built on a slope with several chambers connected to each other. However, the snake kiln in Tanba and the teppo kiln in Tokoname are long kilns with only one chamber. European honyaki kilns include various types of rectangular kilns, but the majority of them are independent vertical cylindrical kilns, and their styles include one-chamber, two-story, and three-story kilns. In terms of fuel, there are wood-fired kilns and coal-fired kilns. In the past, all of these types of kilns used wood as fuel in the ascending type, but nowadays they are mainly inverted kilns, and coal or gas is used in all types of kilns except for those with special purposes. In addition, there are continuous kilns with a dozen or more chambers that use gas as fuel, and continuous kilns are sometimes used for firing porcelain. For glaze firing, cylindrical kilns are mainly used, but large muffle kilns are sometimes used as well. For unglazing, a special type of stand-alone kiln called a unglazed kiln is sometimes used in Japan, or a room in a climbing kiln is sometimes used. In the West, the upper layer of a cylindrical kiln is generally used for unglazed firing and the residual heat from the main firing is used. There are various types of firing kilns, but all of them are muffle kilns in which the fire is not allowed to come into direct contact with the object. There are wood, coal, gas, and electric kilns by heat source, square and cylindrical kilns by shape, and discontinuous and continuous kilns by firing method. In short, there are ceramics that have undergone only main firing, those that have undergone two firing processes (unglazed and glazed), and those that have undergone further firing. Some ceramics are fired only once, while others are fired three or four times, depending on the nature of the pigment.
Painting: Porcelain is often painted for decoration. Underglaze painting is almost always dyed except for special cases, and does not require firing because it is fused to the glaze. Under glaze is called over glaze or simply painted. Since it is generally applied after the main firing or glaze firing, further firing is necessary to adhere the painting to the glazed surface after painting. There are two types of painting methods: brush painting and printing. There are three types of printing methods: stencil printing, copperplate printing, and lithographic printing.
